For centuries, the crunchy, log-shaped cookies known as biscotti weren’t just a dessert—they were a vital food source for sailors, powering naval fleets and expeditions across the globe. Though now enjoyed with wine or coffee, these “twice-baked” pastries originated as a durable, long-lasting staple for maritime life.
The Origins in Ancient Rome
The word “biscotto” means “baked twice” in Italian, referring to the process that creates its signature hardness. This practice dates back to ancient Rome, where the government’s public ovens produced panis nauticus (“bread of the sailor”) – a hard bread made from flour, water, and salt designed for maximum shelf life. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder documented this in his Natural History, noting its use for long sea voyages.
Bakers would bake the bread once, then again at low temperatures to remove moisture, preventing mold and pests. Ports like Ostia had dedicated bakeries supplying navy fleets, and even industrial-scale watermills existed in Roman settlements like Barbegal to mass-produce this essential ration. This mattered because the ability to sustain long sea voyages was critical for Rome’s trade and military dominance.
Biscotti as Maritime Fuel in the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, panis nauticus evolved into panis biscoctus, becoming a critical resource for expanding maritime powers. The Republic of Venice, for instance, operated large-scale biscotti bakeries to supply its fleet controlling Mediterranean trade routes. Giovanni Boccaccio even referenced biscotti in his Decameron in 1353.
Venetian sailors received a daily allowance of one biscotto and soup. However, these medieval biscotti were salty, not sweet, and resembled crunchy water biscuits. Venice’s “biscotti quarters” were strategically built near the Arsenal, the navy yard, ensuring ships stocked up before setting sail. The presence of these bakeries is documented in early maps of the city from the late 15th and 16th centuries.
Other maritime republics, like Tuscany and Aragon, also relied heavily on biscotti. Christopher Columbus carried 1,000 tons of biscotti on his expeditions, demonstrating its importance for powering long voyages. Historical accounts indicate that biscotti provided approximately 75% of crews’ caloric intake, supplementing cheese, cured meat, and soup.
The Evolution to Sweetness in the Renaissance
By the 16th century, biscotti began to transition from a purely functional food to a refined treat. As sugar became more available through trade with the Americas, bakers started incorporating it into their recipes, alongside almonds and other flavorings. Bartolomeo Scappi, a chef for popes, included a biscotti recipe with sugar in his 1570 cookbook.
The Tuscan name cantucci appeared in written documentation in 1691, with sugar as a key ingredient. Antonio Mattei further enhanced the recipe in the 19th century, adding almond flakes and anise, winning awards at the 1867 World Expo in Paris.
From Fleet Staple to Global Dessert
Mattei’s almond biscotti gained international popularity in the 20th century. However, with the advent of canning and refrigeration, naval fleets eventually shifted away from relying on biscotti as their primary food source. Despite this, for centuries, biscotti was the perfect solution for keeping crews fed during long voyages, so fleets continued to use it until more modern solutions became available.
Today, the biscotti we enjoy is a far cry from its salty, rock-hard predecessor. But its story reminds us that even the simplest pleasures have surprising origins in necessity and ingenuity.
